by PIERRE ETIENNE CRONJE submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION in the subject PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROF H E ROETS JUNE 2009
SUMMARY
Handwriting as a unique expression of human behavior has evoked continuous interest as a means of analyzing and studying personality – a study known as Graphology.
Research in graphology has shown diverse results, ranging from negative to highly favorable. Many of the studies disregarding the value of graphology can be criticized on the grounds of their research methodology as well as the method used in handwriting analysis, namely the ‘trait-method’ whereby isolated graphological features are simplistically linked to personality as opposed to a more encompassing, holistic approach.In the present study the special link between personality and graphology is illustrated as well as the decisive influence the gestalt and form standard of a writing have on the interpretation of that particular writing. The approach to the graphological analyses was holistic, as it complements the complex uniqueness of personality.
The study also focuses on the recommended methodology of handwriting analysis, by offering a tailor-made personality ‘picture’ of the individual.
Graphological findings were compared to the clinical findings of the same client/patient according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Diseases IV-TRTM (DSM-IV-TRTM).
Five (5) case studies have been reported in this qualitative research study. The analyses of the writings were done by an independent graphologist. The objective graphological findings show similarities with clinical findings of the same clients/patients. The holistic approach to handwriting analysis deems to have diagnostic value and is promising in providing guidelines for psychotherapy. Graphology can thus be regarded as a useful and viable tool in psycho-educational assessment.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.2 Introduction
1.2 INTRODUCTION
One of the basic principles taught in psychology is the unique nature of the individual’s personality. Allport (Livesley 2001a:7; Sadock & Sadock 2005a:782) defined personality as the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment. It is the integrated and dynamic organization of an individual’s psychological, social, moral and physical characteristics as exposed by his interaction with both the environment and with other people.
The definition emphasizes uniqueness and the integrated dynamics of the person as a ’whole’ – a holistic viewpoint. The assessment of personality, where personality is broadly defined as the characteristic way in which a persona perceives the world, relates to others, solves problems, regulates emotions, manages stress and copes with life’s challenges is an integral part of the process in which health professionals evaluate, understand and ultimately treat their patients (Davis 2001:1).
“Personality assessment” dates back to the humble contribution of the constitutional approach whereby individuals were clustered according to the relationship between constitutional factors and personality characteristics (Theron & Louw 1989:47). Since then, personality assessment has emerged into a sophisticated range of psychometric tests that answer to the requirements of validity, reliability and proper norms.
Personality tests range from highly structured questionnaires (MMPI-II, 16 PF, MCMI-III) on one end of the continuum to relatively ambiguous projective techniques such as Thematic Apperception Test, Sentence Completion and Rorschach on the other end of the continuum (Sadock & Sadock 2003:178-180). 3 Projective techniques are believed to access the deeper layers of personality structure and perhaps the complexities of personality dynamics (Davis 2001:1).
The ideal psychometric procedure in the assessment of personality would be one that supports the principle of uniqueness and individuality as described in the definition of personality. Handwriting analysis, a projective technique, but more specifically an expressive projective technique has shown promises as a valuable and reliable measuring instrument for personality assessment (Broschk 2003:14; Pogorelsky 1996:27 & Rosa 2006:58) A sample of handwriting, as the ‘test protocol’, is a unique creation of the individual, thus supporting the principle of uniqueness in personality assessment. A skilful graphologist is able to compile a unique synthesis of personality traits and personality functioning derived from one’s handwriting (Jacoby 1991:7). Yet, graphology, unlike most other projective techniques, has never been a training module in any psychology course at South African universities in contrast to countries such as Europe and Israel.
The potential value of graphology in personality assessment on the one hand, in contrast to its non-availability in South African psychology syllabi on the other hand, gives rise to the following thoughts and questions: Why is a potentially useful technique in personality assessment overlooked and neglected? Is the lack of proper training and thorough knowledge in graphology perhaps the reason for its exclusion from psychology syllabi? Is the lack of interest due to too little expertise in the field? Is mastering the technique perhaps too complicated or time-consuming? Is graphology as an independent science too comprehensive a field in comparison to other projective techniques?
1.3 MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY
According to Fordham (Jacoby 1991:7) handwriting is a medium through which the human psyche expresses itself; thus an expressive, projective technique (Broschk 2003:14; Smit 1991:3).
A good graphologist can penetrate into the phenomena of a writing and give a clear account of the personality which is of real assistance to the psychologist.
The motivation for the study is to bring the value of graphology as a descriptive and diagnostic tool in personality assessment to the attention of other psychologists with special reference to the following advantages:
*The use of graphology in ‘picturing’ the client
*The use of graphology in establishing symptomatology
*The use of graphology in formulating guidelines for psychotherapy
Amongst others, the following practical advantages of graphology seem to be appealing in undertaking a study on the viability of graphology:
*a Handwriting sample is easily obtainable
*a Handwriting sample can be produced by anyone
*It is relatively culture-fair
*Pen and paper are the only equipment needed
*No expensive test material is needed
*Unlike some personality questionnaires, handwriting cannot become outdated or obsolete
*It does not discriminate in any aspect; an analysis is based on the specimen only, since no detail of the writer is needed
Almost all of the aspects of personality mentioned in Allports’ comprehensive definition of personality (Alexander 1990:2) can be detected in one’s handwriting. This makes it possible to compile a synthesis of personality functioning tailormade to each individual. It provides valuable information about personality factors, interaction style, thinking style as well as subconscious drives.